Nganasans inhabit the east of the Taimyr Municipal District of Krasnoyarsk Krai and the territory under the administration of the city of Dudinka. They are the northernmost people of Eurasia. In the 1940s-1960s, in connection with the realization of the plan of transition from a nomadic way of life to a sedentary one, settlements were built south of the main places of their former nomadism, on the Dolgan ethnic territory - Ust-Avam, Volochanka, Novaya. At present, most of the Nganasans are concentrated in these settlements. Only about 100 people live semi-settled on the “points” of hunting and fishing in the tundra, mainly in the upper reaches of the Dudypta River. The population in Russia is 687 (All-Russian census 2020-2021).
Anthropologically, the Nganasans belong to the Baikal type of the North Asian race. The Nganasan language belongs to the Samoyedic branch of the Uralic language family. Avamsky and Vadeevsky dialects are distinguished. Nganasan language is recognized as native by 83,4% of Nganasans, only 2,5% speak it fluently, while Russian language is spoken by 56,8%. The language acquired a written language in 1990, thanks to the work of Alexander Cheleevich Momde.
The analysis of archaeological data gives grounds to believe that the Nganasans were formed on the basis of the ancient population of Taimyr under Samoyedic and Tungus influence. In the XVII century Nganasans included groups of different origin (Pyasid Samoyad, Kuraki, Tidiris, Tavgi, etc.), up to the second half of the XIX century this community included new clans. Contacts with Russians began in the XVII century, when Mangazei Cossacks began to collect tribute from “Tavgi Samoyad”. The Nganasans paid the tribute with doeskin (rovduga).
The main traditional occupation was hunting wild reindeer, Arctic foxes, hares and birds (ptarmigan, geese, ducks). Reindeer herding and fishing were also developed. Economic activity was seasonal. Time was counted by lunar months (kiteda). During the solar year, the Nganasans had two years to pass (khu) - summer and winter. They hunted mainly in the summer-autumn period (from July to November). From August to November, animals were hunted by stabbing on nomadic routes and at crossings. Hunters would wait for a herd of deer, let them enter the water and swim far enough from the shore and stab them with spears between the ribs so that the deer would swim along the water to the shore for some time. Other hunters were downstream in the river and picked up the killed animals. Reindeer were hunted throughout the year, for example, in winter the reindeer were driven into nets. They also used hunting with fences - converging rows of stakes, where animals were driven by shouting. There was also individual hunting with a reindeer hunter, with a dog, and with a camouflage shield (lopho), hunting from shelter, from sleds, etc. Processing of reindeer skins was well developed. Women made doeskin of very high quality.
Geese were harvested from July to October (during the molting season). Hunters in boats surrounded the birds and drove them to the shore, where nets were set up - deptu bugur. The foxes were alerted by the stone traps - phala dengouy hares were caught with loops, ducks and partridges with nets. Nganasans treated nature with care. During the time when animals bred, hunting was regulated by a set of customs - karsu. The main weapon was a spear - phonka, a bow - dynta with arrows - budy, a knife - kyuma. Since the XIX century, firearms have become widespread.
Reindeer husbandry was of a transportation nature and was subordinate to the main occupation - hunting wild reindeer. Each family needed at least 40-50 domestic reindeer to follow the wild herd, the slaughter of which was allowed only in exceptional cases - in case of hunger, injuries or illness of the animal.
Nganasan reindeer are not very strong, stunted, but have stamina and the ability to recover quickly from exhaustion. The Nganasans had more than 20 words for reindeer depending on age, appearance (branching of antlers), and use. The best qualities for transportation use were possessed by bangai - dry female reindeer. Herds numbered 2000-2,500 animals. Animals were marked in two ways: with a stamp on their fur or with a shaped cut on their ears. Three-year old reindeer were taught to ride. In harness reindeer were tied by the headstocks, reins were driven from the left side, like Nenets, and a long reindeer was used suongka with a bone circle lapsada at the end. Sledges were of different types depending on their purpose. Iryanka - light riding reindeer, usually three-hoofed. They were harnessed with 2-3 reindeer (4-5 in spring, when the animals were exhausted). Men often rode on such a sled, so a weapon case was tied to it from the right side. Insyudakonto - women's three- or five-hoofed sledges - had a back and front, with a fur canopy on top to cover their heads and backs in case of severe frosts. Kunsyby'ae - cargo sleds. The cargo was covered with a blanket (fantui) sewn from reindeer furs. There were special sleds for transportation of poles (ngyuusya) and reindeer tires (diye) for the chum (a raw-hide tent), the beds (tobo), firewood, boats.
By 1980, due to the increase in the Taimyr population of wild reindeer, the Nganasans' domestic reindeer husbandry had lost its former importance, and it had practically disappeared among the Avam Nganasans. Nganasans located their camps on low hills, between which they sheltered reindeer. In the fall they arranged their dwelling near the rivers so that hunters could reach the camp along the riverbed in the darkness. In spring, winter things were stacked on sledges, covered with smoky, moisture-proof reindeer skin and left in the tundra until the next winter.
The Nganasan did not have such an important economic significance in fishing. It was harvested with nets (kol bugur), iron hooks (batu), and bone spokes (fedyr).
The traditional dwelling of the Nganasans is a conical chum, similar in design to the Nenets one. Its size depended on the number of people living (usually 1-5 families) and varied from 3 to 9 meters across. The frame consisted of 20-60 long poles, which were arranged in the form of a cone and covered with covers made of reindeer skins. For the summer chum old worn-out tires were used, laid in one layer. The door was made of two sewn reindeer skins, opened depending on the wind direction - on the right or on the left (there was also an additional rear exit, which was used by men going out for fishing). In winter, the outside of the chum was covered with a stump (tokeda). In the center of the chum, opposite the entrance, there was a hearth (tory). In winter, it was stacked on an iron sheet lying on two parallel logs. Above the hearth hung hooks for kettles and cauldrons.
A hole was left in the upper part of the chum - a chimney. A clean place was arranged behind the hearth (cieng) where women were forbidden to set foot. There were places for women (batu) at the entrance, and there were also household utensils. To the right of the entrance was the living half of the chum. The left half served for storing household items and for guests. The floor was covered with mats made of talus wood (tola) and planks (lata). The sleeping places were first laid over boards and mats with uncured hides and then scraped beddings (honsu). At night, a canopy was lowered over the sleeping places so that it could be tucked under the bedding. After sleeping, the canopy was removed, thoroughly whipped out, rolled up and placed under the nyuk (chym winter tires from deerskin). Inverted sledges were used for protection from the wind during bad weather. Since the 1930s, they began to use the balok - a rectangular cart on skids with a frame covered with reindeer skins or tarpaulin - as a dwelling. It is warmer than a tent, but it is heavier (4-5 reindeer are required to move it) and does not retain heat as long.
Traditional clothing was made of reindeer skins. Purchased fabrics (more often white, red and black cloth) were used mainly for finishing. Men's clothing consisted of a deaf double deerskin parka - malitsa (lou), which was usually made of white reindeer skin and trimmed with white fur of dogs specially bred for this purpose. In frosty weather, a hooded sokui khie with a high fur sultan over the forehead was worn over the malitsa.
The women's clothing consisted of a doeskin jumpsuit (phoniye) with metal lunnits stitched on the chest (bodyamoand an open parka (liphariye). Instead of a hood they wore a cap (сьму) made of white deer skin with a black dog fur trim. Clothes were decorated with appliqué and geometric ornaments (muly). They were used to determine which social group the wearer belonged to. Embellishment was the most labor-intensive process in sewing clothes, so the appliqués were torn from old clothes and used several times.
The shoes (faimudid not have a notch in the instep, being a kind of cylindrical cover. It was made of white climbing skins (camus), and the soles were made of reindeer foreheads or camus trimmed in a ladder (so that they did not slip when walking). Women's shoes had shorter shanks. Shoes were worn over fur stockings (tangada). Men wore doeskin or fur underwear instead of pants (ningka) over them was a belt with rings on the side to which boot-top were tied, and also hung a firebrand (tuui), a knife in a scabbard, a pipe case, and a pouch. In spring, snow goggles (seymenkunsyda) - a bone or metal plate with a slit on leather straps - were worn to protect eyes from blinding light. Both women and men braided their hair, smeared with reindeer fat, into two braids. Metal pendants were woven into them (nyaptuhyai).
The diet was based on reindeer meat. All parts of the carcass were eaten, not excluding the fetus and stomach contents (taiba). In summer and fall, meat was prepared in store. Women were engaged in this work. The most common was dried meat (tiribi). It was hung in long pieces on hangers (chiedr- sledges, stacked on top of each other - then cut into small pieces, mixed with fat and dried once more on spread skins. In winter they froze reindeer blood and cut off pieces as needed to make chowder (dyama). The same was done with fat from meat broth. The vessels for storing fat were the whole skin of a calf, esophagus and stomach of a deer, swim bladder and skin of a fish (kunzhi). Nganasans left meat, fat, fish sometimes in the fall in the tundra in ice boxes. They also consumed meat of geese, partridges, foxes, hares, snow ram and bird eggs. Fish (broad whitefish, muksun, brown trout, inconnu) was eaten raw, frozen, dried. The dried fish, yukola (sun-dried fish) (phaka) was prepared almost in the same way as reindeer meat and stored in sacks. In winter they ate stroganina (slices of frozen fish). Nganasans used to eat almost no bread. Unleavened cakes made of bought flour (kiribawere considered a delicacy. Among the favorite dishes were also chirima kiriba - flour cakes with caviar and chirime dir - lard cooked with caviar. Tea and tobacco were also imported products.
The Avam Nganasans were divided into five patrilineal clans, the Vadeev ones - into six. The leaders of the clans were the oldest people, who were later elected as rulers, who represented their people before the Russian administration. Their functions included the collection of yasak (tax) and the trial of offenses. The custom of mutual aid was widespread among the members of the clan. In case of impoverishment of any family at the general meeting it was decided to give its incapacitated members for food to wealthy households. Mutual aid relations also existed between friendly clans.
Places of traditional nomadism and stabbing hunting were assigned to a group of 6-7 related families and were considered the property of the clan. The boundaries of these territories were carefully observed. Marriages between relatives on both lines up to the third generation were forbidden. Payment of bride price (reindeer, skins) was considered obligatory. Levirate marriage existed. Cases of polygamy were rare (mostly among wealthy people).
Nganasans believed in supernatural beings - nguo - deities of all kinds of elements and phenomena. They also included - kocha - spirits of diseases, dyamady spirits-assistants of shamans, barusy - one-armed and one-eyed monsters. All phenomena were considered to be the spawn of mothers: Earth (Mou-naemy), Sun (Kou-naemy), Fire (Tuy-naemy), Water (Byzy-naemy), Wood (Khua-naemy) and so on. They also honored clan and personal patrons - koyka - in the form of stones, rocks, trees, anthropomorphic or zoomorphic figures, etc. The patron spirits were asked for good luck in hunting and family welfare. Almost every nomadic group of Nganasans had its own shaman, whose function was to communicate with the world of spirits in order to cure the sick, to provide people with welfare. An important place was occupied by the holiday of “Clean Chum” - Malusya, held after the end of the polar night. A large chum was built for it. The festival was led by a shaman, who thanked the spirits for the winter and asked them for a prosperous spring. At this time young people were playing games and having fun outside. Depending on the strength of the shaman, the holiday lasted from 3 to 9 days. Sometimes instead of the holiday of “Clean Chum” they held the holiday of passing through the stone gate (phala phutu). Stone slabs were laid in the form of a corridor. During 3 days the shaman conducted shamanistic ritual, in the end he and all present passed through the stone corridor three times. During the summer solstice, there was a festival called the Any’o-dyaly.It was led by the oldest woman. During this fun young people organized games and contests (spear throwing, harness throwing, etc.).
Decorative art of Nganasans is represented by engraving on mammoth bone, inlaying and stamping on metal, leather dyeing and patterned sewing with deer hair.
References
- Popov A.A. Tavgiytsy. M.;L., 1936.
- Popov A.A. Nganasans. Material culture. M.;L., 1948.
- Dolgikh B.O. Origin of the Nganasans // TIE, 1952. Т. 18.
- Popov A.A. Nganasans // Peoples of Siberia. M.;L., 1956.
- Popov A.A. Nganasans. Social structure and beliefs. Л., 1984.
- Dolgikh B.O., Feinberg L.A. Taimyr Nganasans // TIE. 1960. Т. 56.
- Nganasans // Anthropological study. Materials for the “Peoples and Cultures” series. М., 1992
